TY - JOUR
T1 - Explaining the Differences in Opioid Overdose Deaths between Scotland and England/Wales: Implications for European Opioid Policies
AU - van Amsterdam, Jan
AU - van den Brink, Wim
AU - Pierce, Mimi
N1 - Publisher Copyright: © 2021 S. Karger AG. All rights reserved.
PY - 2021/11/1
Y1 - 2021/11/1
N2 - Backgrounds: Between 2009 and 2018, the number of opioid-related deaths (ORDs) in Scotland showed a dramatic increase, whereas in England and Wales, a much lower increase in ORD was seen. This regional difference is remarkable, and the situation in Scotland is worrisome. Therefore, it is important to identify the drivers of ORD in Scotland. Methods: A systematic literature review according to PRISMA guidelines was conducted to identify peer-reviewed studies about key drivers for the observed differences in ORDs between Scotland and England/Wales. In addition, non-peer-reviewed reports on nationwide statistical data were retrieved via Google and Google Scholar and analysed to quantify differences in ORD drivers between Scotland and England/Wales. Results: The systematic review identified some important drivers of ORD, but none of these studies provided direct or indirect comparisons of ORD drivers in Scotland and England/Wales. However, the reports with nationwide statistical data showed important differences in ORD drivers between Scotland and England/Wales, including a higher prevalence of people using opioids in a problematic way (PUOP), more polydrug use in people using drugs in a problematic way (PUDP), a higher age of PUDP, and lower treatment coverage and efficacy of PUDP in Scotland compared to England/Wales, but no regional differences in injecting drug use, incarceration/prison release without treatment, and social deprivation in PUDP. Conclusion: It is concluded that the opioid crisis in Scotland is best explained by a combination of drivers, consisting of a higher population involvement in (problematic) opioid use (notably methadone), relatively more polydrug use (notably benzodiazepines and gabapentinoids), a steeper ageing of the PUOP population in the past 2 decades, and lower treatment coverage and efficacy in Scotland compared to England/Wales. The findings have important consequences for strategies to handle the opioid crisis in Scotland.
AB - Backgrounds: Between 2009 and 2018, the number of opioid-related deaths (ORDs) in Scotland showed a dramatic increase, whereas in England and Wales, a much lower increase in ORD was seen. This regional difference is remarkable, and the situation in Scotland is worrisome. Therefore, it is important to identify the drivers of ORD in Scotland. Methods: A systematic literature review according to PRISMA guidelines was conducted to identify peer-reviewed studies about key drivers for the observed differences in ORDs between Scotland and England/Wales. In addition, non-peer-reviewed reports on nationwide statistical data were retrieved via Google and Google Scholar and analysed to quantify differences in ORD drivers between Scotland and England/Wales. Results: The systematic review identified some important drivers of ORD, but none of these studies provided direct or indirect comparisons of ORD drivers in Scotland and England/Wales. However, the reports with nationwide statistical data showed important differences in ORD drivers between Scotland and England/Wales, including a higher prevalence of people using opioids in a problematic way (PUOP), more polydrug use in people using drugs in a problematic way (PUDP), a higher age of PUDP, and lower treatment coverage and efficacy of PUDP in Scotland compared to England/Wales, but no regional differences in injecting drug use, incarceration/prison release without treatment, and social deprivation in PUDP. Conclusion: It is concluded that the opioid crisis in Scotland is best explained by a combination of drivers, consisting of a higher population involvement in (problematic) opioid use (notably methadone), relatively more polydrug use (notably benzodiazepines and gabapentinoids), a steeper ageing of the PUOP population in the past 2 decades, and lower treatment coverage and efficacy in Scotland compared to England/Wales. The findings have important consequences for strategies to handle the opioid crisis in Scotland.
KW - Drug dependence
KW - Drug-related death
KW - Incarceration
KW - Injecting drug use
KW - Opioids
KW - Polydrug use
KW - Problem drug use
UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85107476125&partnerID=8YFLogxK
U2 - https://doi.org/10.1159/000516165
DO - https://doi.org/10.1159/000516165
M3 - Review article
C2 - 33965949
SN - 1022-6877
VL - 27
SP - 399
EP - 412
JO - European Addiction Research
JF - European Addiction Research
IS - 6
ER -